THE ARMY OF THE DUCHY OF MODENA DURING THE WAR OF SPANISH SUCCESSION

METHODOLOGICAL NOTE

The Duchy of Modena, ruled by the House of Este—once the lords of Ferrara—represents a genuine challenge from the point of view of uniform research. On the one hand, I have managed to recover a considerable amount of information; on the other, I soon realised that no one had ever attempted to organise it systematically. What existed was essentially a collection of scattered images and references, assembled without any real underlying structure.

This uniformological investigation therefore provides an excellent, and indeed rather extreme, example of what I mean by an investigative/inductive method of uniform research. By this I mean an approach in which conclusions are always rooted in historical evidence: every available piece of information is examined in the greatest possible detail, then compared and interpreted through logical deduction until a coherent reconstruction can be reached.

In my view, it is always preferable to attempt to fill historical gaps in this way rather than simply abandon the subject because the surviving evidence is incomplete.

And this is precisely the story of the Army of the Duchy of Modena during the War of the Spanish Succession, from 1707 onwards, during the brief period in which it becomes particularly relevant.

The military history of the Duchy of Modena and Reggio during the War of the Spanish Succession is particularly interesting because this small Este state found itself almost exactly on the fault line between France and the Empire. Rather than conducting a large-scale independent war with forces of its own, Modena was initially a territory of passage, occupation and strategic rivalry, before becoming, from 1707 onwards, a political and military base increasingly tied to the Imperial cause.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

1701 – A neutrality already compromised

At the beginning of the war, Duke Rinaldo d’Este attempted formally to maintain a position of neutrality. In practice, however, as early as the summer of 1701 he allowed the Imperial troops of Prince Eugene to make use of the fortress of Brescello. This was far from a neutral gesture: Brescello, on the Po, was a fortress strategically very important for communications and for the entry of Imperial forces into the Po Valley. The Duchy found itself in an extremely difficult position: Franco-Spanish armies operated to the north and west, while Imperial forces were advancing from the opposite direction. Modena simply did not possess enough troops to prevent either of the great powers from imposing its will.

The Duchy of Modena and Reggio

1702 – The French occupation

Rinaldo’s pro-Imperial stance soon had consequences. On 1 August 1702, French troops entered Modena after forcing the Imperial forces to abandon the Reggio sector. Rinaldo left the Duchy and took refuge with his court in Bologna (with his Guards du Corps), where he remained for the most part until 1707. From this point onwards, Modena ceased for several years to enjoy any real military independence. In 1703, the French occupation effectively became a conquest, and the Este administration was dissolved. The military structures of the Duchy did of course continue to exist but under French control and the state itself was under occupation and its ruler was in exile.

1706 – The turning point

The major strategic turning point came with the campaign of 1706. The Allied victory at Turin on 7 September 1706 completely altered the military balance in northern Italy. The French army was gradually forced to retreat (the retreat was compleated at the beginnin of the year 1707), while Imperial forces were able to advance into the Po Valley. The war in Italy was now clearly turning in Austria’s favour. In November 1706, Imperial forces reached Modena. The French withdrew into the Citadel, which was then besieged. Rinaldo d’Este himself took part in the siege, (and this means with his troops, already recovered; this also confirms they wereexsisting under the french occupation, with important effects on the uniforms study); it was indeed a significant fact because it marked the return  of the Duke of Modena not simply as a restored ruler, but also as a military ally of the Empire.

Rinaldo d'Este Duca di Modena e di Reggio

1707 – Liberation of Modena and reconstruction of the military establishment

In February 1707, the French garrison of the Citadel surrendered. Rinaldo returned permanently to his territories and restored the Este government.

It is above all from this point onwards that the Army of Modena becomes particularly interesting from a uniformological point of view.

With the territory liberated, the Duke had to:

• re-establish companies and regular units;
• reorganise the garrisons;
• provide for the defence of the fortresses;
• restore equipment, uniforms and armament;
• coordinate his forces with the Imperial troops operating in the region.

The Duchy also became a kind of secure rear area for the Imperial military system in northern Italy. Rinaldo’s policy increasingly transformed Modena into a political and military bridgehead for Imperial influence in Italy.

1707–1708 – Ferrara and Comacchio

After the liberation of his Duchy, Rinaldo attempted to turn his alliance with the Emperor into territorial advantage. The Este had never forgotten Ferrara, which they had lost to the Papal States in 1598. Rinaldo therefore supported the argument that Comacchio, and more broadly certain rights in the Ferrarese, were Imperial fiefs rather than territories over which the Papacy exercised unquestioned sovereignty. This interpretation found support in Vienna.

When open conflict broke out in 1708 between the Empire and Pope Clement XI, the Duchy of Modena therefore occupied a very particular position: it was not merely a spectator, but an Imperial ally with a direct dynastic interest in the dispute. Imperial operations against Comacchio, Ostellato, Bondeno and Ferrara thus took place immediately next to Este territory and made use of Modena and the neighbouring districts as part of the wider Imperial logistical system.

THE ROLE OF THE ARMY OF THE DUCHY OF MODENA 1706 - 1709

Besides roles of garrison duty, fortress defence, territorial control, logistical support and artillery service, the Este's Army also perfomed a limietd military campaign.

The military activity of the troops of the Duchy was concentrated mainly on the siege of Modena and its Citadel, in which some 4,000 militiamen took part under the command of Antonio Maria Sufari, Lieutenant of the Guard of the Duke of Modena. (The Guardia del Corpo had been divided into two detachments, with approximately 60 guards accompanying the Duke during his exile in Bologna).

The presence of a Lieutenant of the Guard allows us to draw two conclusions: first, that half of the unit (that stayed in Modena) had remained active; and second, that a detachment of it was present at the siege, probably at about half-company strength, or roughly 40-50 men. As for the militia, the sources describe them as “forensi”, that is, Territorial militia. They were therefore probably drawn from the territories around of Modena and Reggio and Garfagnana.

The siege took place on 20 November 1706, which means that these troops were able to organise themselves in an extremely short space of time. This is particularly significant because, as we shall see, they were already fully organised from a military point of view.

A further important element that has emerged is that the Bombardiers (artillerymen) of the Duchy also took part in the subsequent siege of the Citadel of Modena. This provides additional confirmation that the entire military structure of the Duchy of Modena had remained in existence even during the French occupation.

Further evidence also supports the conclusion that the Guard of the Duke of Modena had accompanied him during his exile in Bologna. When the Duke returned to his territories, he was escorted by his Guard, which strongly suggests that the unit had been with him in Bologna, together with a body of cavalry. The escort numbered about 150 men in total.

In September 1708, the Emperor began moving towards the Ferrarese the limited forces that he had been able to assemble in the Mantuan territory. In order not to weaken the garrison of Mantua excessively, he asked the Duke of Modena to send several companies of his infantry there as reinforcements.It therefore appears clear that, by this time, the army of the Duchy had once again become fully operational.

 At the same time, Duke Rinaldo I d’Este, concerned for the security of his own territories, also began strengthening his military establishment. During that same month he brought down several companies of hardy men from the Garfagnana, reinforced with them the garrisons of Spilamberto, Vignola, San Cesario, Nonantola and Finale, and subsequently increased the number of regular troops available for any eventuality.

The contemporary Avvisi Italiani confirm that a considerable mobilisation was under way. A report from Venice stated that recruiting drums were being beaten in Modena for new levies and that enlistment was proceeding successfully. Each recruit was offered very good payment and a full uniform. The conditions appear to have been sufficiently attractive to induce 54 soldiers to desert from Forte Urbano, together with additional men from Faenza, in order to enter Modenese service. At the same time, the export of horses from Modena was prohibited under severe penalties, while the militia were ordered to be ready to march on the 27th, although their intended destination was not disclosed.

The Modenese forces were deployed in particular along the Panaro, which at that time marked the frontier between the Este territories and the Papal States. From these positions they not only defended the border but also repelled several Papal incursions and took an active part in operations carried out beyond the frontier.

The precise strength of the Modenese forces were very elevated: The Avvisi Italiani reported in August that the Duke of Modena had reached an agreement with contractors from Mantua for as many as 12,000 uniforms intended for newly raised soldiers.

More significant is another report dating from the end of September, according to which 3,000 men had descended from the Garfagnana to join an equal number of regular soldiers, with the purpose of opposing the Papal forces that were concentrating around Forte Urbano. If taken literally, this would suggest a force of approximately 6,000 men available for operations in the sector, 

Taken together, these contemporary accounts clearly indicate that the Duchy of Modena was not merely a passive supporter of the Imperial cause in 1708. On the contrary, it was actively recruiting, equipping and deploying significant numbers of troops, reinforcing its fortresses, guarding the frontier along the Panaro and preparing to cooperate militarily with the Imperial forces operating against the Papal States.

THE ARMY OF THE DUCHY OF MODENA

Having set out the necessary historical background, we must now turn to the most difficult part: determining the actual composition of the Army of the Duchy of Modena.

To do so, following the methodological approach outlined above, it is necessary to begin from a number of investigative and deductive principles:

1. Before the occupation of 1702, a ducal army was already in existence.
2. During the French occupation, the Modenese military system was not dismantled, but continued to remain in existence.
3. With the Duke’s return, the army developed in continuity with the pre-existing military establishment, both because of immediate practical necessities and because of the need to reorganise it as rapidly as possible.
4. No substantial changes were introduced before 1740; consequently, information relating to the Modenese military establishment up to that date may, with due caution, also be considered applicable to the period of the War of the Spanish Succession.

The principal source consists of Quinto Cenni’s notes and his remarkable uniformological plates. Unfortunately, no systematic study of the Modenese army exists, and even the surviving material collected by Cenni is often rather confused, having been assembled without any clear methodological framework. Cenni himself is also frequently lacking in precise information and detail.

Nevertheless, by comparing his material with contemporary sources and carefully examining apparently minor references—for example, accounts of the celebrations held in 1700 for the birth of the Duke’s first-born son, during which the various troops were drawn up on parade—it is possible to reconstruct a much more complete picture of the military establishment of the Duchy.

1709 BATTLE OF PONTE DI LAGO OSCURO: THE GLORY OF RUSPOLI REGIMENT

On 2 January 1709, orders arrived from Rome directing the Ruspoli regiment to march towards Ferrara, a city that had become increasingly isolated but still contained an important arsenal. As the troops advanced through the towns and countryside of Romagna, they were enthusiastically welcomed by the local population, who saw the Ruspoli Regiment as a visible symbol of the Papal army. By this stage, the regiment had been reinforced by detachments of fusiliers drawn from the garrisons of Cesena, Forlì and Faenza, (with different unifoms) bringing its effective strength to just under a thousand men. 

It should be remembered that the Colonel’s Company had remained in Rome, and possibly the Grenadier Company as well. This would have reduced the regiment’s effective field strength to nine companies, comprising approximately 650 men. To these must be added the fusiliers drawn from the city garrisons, amounting to a further 250 men, or roughly four auxiliary companies and gunmen.

Along the way, it encountered several enemy detachments, which were driven off with appreciable losses.

The Austrians, who until then had operated with relatively little opposition, recalled their scattered forces and began concentrating them in the area around Comacchio. Once they realised that the Papal column was advancing towards Ferrara, they moved rapidly to strengthen their bridgehead on the southern bank of the Po, at Pontelagoscuro.

On 12 January, Ferrara opened its gates to the Ruspoli Regiment. The Austrian forces had taken up positions only a few miles to the north, around Pontelagoscuro. According to contemporary intelligence, they already numbered between 2,000 and 2,500 men, with the possibility of further reinforcements arriving from the detachments operating throughout Romagna. The most probable

Order of Battle of the Imperial Army:

- Württemberg Regiment 2 battalions  (1.000 men)

- Max Starhemberg Regiment: 2 Battalions (1.000 men)

- Gyulai Haiduks: 1 Battalion (300 men)

     

Although considerably outnumbered, the Ruspoli Regiment enjoyed one important advantage: artillery. The Austrians had little or no artillery immediately available, and it was therefore essential to act before they had time to strengthen and fortify their bridgehead.

Making use also of the guns and artillerymen available at Ferrara, the Papal forces were able to deploy as many as sixteen pieces of artillery approximately four miles north of the city. The Ruspoli Regiment was responsible for ensuring the transport and supply of ammunition, while the artillery maintained a heavy and almost continuous bombardment from dawn until dusk.

After only a few days of sustained fire, the Austrians abandoned their positions and withdrew to the northern bank of the Po.

The immediate threat to the Papal territories in this sector had therefore been removed, and the Ruspoli Regiment emerged from the operation with considerable prestige. As a mark of gratitude, on 3 February 1709 Pope Clement XI elevated the Marquisate of Cerveteri to the rank of a Principality.

The wider conflict, however, ended far less favourably for the Holy See. Following the serious defeat suffered by General Marsili, the Papal States lost control of Comacchio and were forced to accept the presence of an Imperial garrison in the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza. At the same time, the Duchy of Mantua was incorporated into the Empire. These developments compelled the Holy See to conclude a rapid peace with the Imperial forces and to abandon its informal alignment with the Bourbon monarchies of France and Spain. This, in turn, provoked a diplomatic reaction from Louis XIV, who excluded the Papacy from the subsequent negotiations.

In the years that followed, the Ruspoli Regiment was gradually reduced in strength and was eventually incorporated into the Company of His Holiness’s Guards, while continuing to retain the Ruspoli coat of arms on its colours and drums.

PAPAL ARMY - 1708 THE RUSPOLI REGIMENT

 THE RUSPOLI REGIMENT

The Ruspoli Regiment is certainly the regiment of the Papal army for which the most information and detail survive. Not only are its strength and the circumstances of its formation known, but it is also the only regiment for which a painting exists depicting it in 1708 itself, and this painting forms the basis for its uniformological reconstruction.

This is a painting by Alessandro Piazza, commissioned by Francesco Maria Ruspoli and completed in 1710, depicting the Ruspoli Regiment being presented before its departure for the Ferrara campaign, in connection with the papal blessing in Piazza Santi Apostoli in Rome.

The historical scene represented is believed to be that of 9 September 1708: Ruspoli’s troops are presented before their departure, and the painting, executed shortly afterwards, also includes members of the Ruspoli circle. A source devoted to Handel suggests that George Frideric Handel himself is also depicted among the spectators, wearing a richly gold-decorated coat.

In fact, on the advice of his uncle, Cardinal Galeazzo Marescotti, in 1707 he armed a brigantine at his own expense and presented it to the Pope. The vessel was formally handed over at Civitavecchia, and for the occasion Handel composed a choral work for treble voices. His aim of securing the elevation of the Marquisate of Cerveteri to the rank of a principality, however, was not yet achieved.

Marquis, later Prince, Francesco Maria Ruspoli

So in 1708 he raised the Ruspoli Regiment at his own expense. Originally established at a strength of about 550 men, the regiment was subsequently expanded to approximately 1,000 men. In January 1709 it was employed against the Austrians at Ferrara, where it succeeded in driving them back, thanks in particular to its superiority in artillery.

As a reward, on 3 February 1709 Pope Clement XI elevated the Marquisate of Cerveteri to a principality, final aim for the levy of this regiment.

The painting, which belonged and still belongs to the Ruspoli family, was intended to celebrate both this splendid regiment and the prestige of the family itself in Rome. That prestige would eventually be rewarded with the title of Prince, granted by the Pope in recognition of the foundation of the regiment.

Through the use of artificial intelligence, the painting has been sharpened in order to make its uniformological details more clearly visible. The first thing that immediately stands out is that, contrary to several later representations of the regiment, its supposedly “yellow” uniform was in fact of a distinctly yellow-orange shade, as can be seen from the coats, while the so-called light blue was actually a rather subdued medium blue, rather than a bright or intense blue.

From this deduction, I produced the first reconstruction figure which, for the first time, presents the uniform of this unit in a historically accurate form.

Rgt. Ruspoli 1708 - Private

At the beginning of July 1708, probably on 3 or 4 July, Marquis Francesco Maria Capizucchi Ruspoli submitted a proposal to the Pope requesting permission to raise, at his own expense, a regiment of 500 men and 50 officers. The proposal also laid down the conditions under which the regiment was to be formed, including the appointment of his eleven-year-old son Bartolomeo as Colonel.

The main points of the proposal were as follows:

• a strength of 500 men, organised into companies of no more than 100 men each;
• the right to select both the soldiers and the officers;
• the rank of Colonel for his eleven-year-old son Bartolomeo, who would answer either to the Commander-in-Chief or to the Commissary General of Arms;
• the regiment was to remain stationed in Rome;
• the regiment was to remain independent and was not to be amalgamated with any other regiment;
• the right to adopt its own uniform;
• precedence over the other regiments, together with the privilege of being the last to be disbanded.

The Pope’s approval was communicated to the Marquis on 7 July 1708. On the same day, Count Mario Capizucchi, Francesco Maria’s stepbrother, was appointed Captain-Lieutenant of the Colonel’s Company.

It should be noted that, under the approved regulations, the Colonel’s Company was to remain permanently stationed in Rome. In the days that followed, preparations for the levy began immediately. The regiment’s Regulations were finalised and agreed with the Military Congregation. One significant change was introduced in comparison with the original proposal: the regiment could, if necessary, be employed outside Rome, with the sole exception of the Colonel’s Company, the First Company, which was to remain in the city. This provision effectively ensured that the Marquis’s young son would not be required to take part in actual campaigning.

At the same time, the first instructions concerning clothing and armament were issued, probably under Francesco Maria’s direct supervision. Significantly, from the very beginning the soldiers’ uniform was prescribed as yellow with blue facings.

The Marquis also placed particular emphasis on the careful selection of officers and non-commissioned officers. Sergeants were expected to be experienced men, while quartermasters, clerks and corporals were required to be able to write.

Recruitment began on 11 July 1708. The Marquis had originally envisaged a force of 500 men and 50 officers, which would most probably have meant five companies with ten officers assigned to each. Several aspects of the regiment’s formation were now proceeding simultaneously. Angelo Valeri, the steward of the Ruspoli household, began drawing up contracts with various craftsmen and merchants in Rome for uniforms, weapons, leather equipment and the many other items required by the regiment. At the same time, officers, captains and rank-and-file soldiers were being selected.

The surviving account books make the scale and speed of these preparations particularly striking. Within approximately two months, around 500 complete uniforms had been prepared, including hats, shoes and leather equipment, beginning with the purchase of the cloth itself. In September, uniforms for the grenadiers were added, together with approximately eighty grenadier caps and the necessary leather equipment.

Difficulties soon arose, however. The weapons ordered from Brescia — 500 flintlock muskets — were detained by the Venetian authorities. This delay made it impossible to hold the planned review of the regiment on 25 August. The weapons eventually issued to the troops, described in the sources as hunting arquebuses, were not distributed until 25 October, only a few days before the regiment’s departure.

Also in September, for reasons that are not explained by the surviving documentation, the Marquis decided to add a grenadier company to the existing infantry companies. Recruitment of the grenadiers began on 10 September.

On the following Sunday, 16 September, the regiment went to the church of Santi Lorenzo e Damaso, where Cardinal Ottoboni blessed its colours.

Preparations continued throughout the remainder of September and the whole of October. By 28 October 1708 the recruitment of the grenadiers had also been completed, and the regiment, armed with hunting arquebuses, went to receive the blessing of the Holy Father.

At the time of departure, the regiment consisted of:

• Lieutenant-Colonel Guisonel de Roux;
• Sergeant Major Filiberto de Torè, or Turè;
• six Captains;
• eight Lieutenants;
• eight Ensigns;
• one Adjutant Major and one Assistant Adjutant;
• sixteen Sergeants;
• eight Quartermasters;
• eight Clerks;
• one Chaplain;
• one Surgeon and one Assistant Surgeon;
• 560 soldiers;
• 123 horses.

This list provides particularly valuable information. When read together with the evidence discussed above, it shows that, at the time of departure, the Ruspoli Regiment consisted of eight infantry companies plus one Grenadier Company: the five original companies were supplemented by three additional companies, while the Grenadiers formed a separate company. Of the eight infantry companies, one was commanded by the Lieutenant-Colonel, one by the Sergeant Major, and six by Captains.

Each company had a Quartermaster and a Clerk. Each company was divided into two platoons, each commanded by a Sergeant. Other documents further show that each platoon was subdivided into four squads, rather than five, each under the command of a Corporal. During the course of the conflict, a further two companies were added.

One point remains uncertain: the number of drummers, which was probably ten.

If one assumes either one or two drummers per company, together with four corporals per company, the number of soldiers — including drummers and corporals — derived from the surviving account books fluctuates between 494 and 504 men. It therefore seems likely that the figure given in the official document was based upon a standard establishment of seventy soldiers per company, a strength which, for various reasons, was evidently never fully attained.

As already noted, the Colonel’s Company remained in Rome together with the Grenadier Company, at least during the initial phase. The five initial Captains belonged all to the Order of Knights of Malta and hence they bore the Cross of Malta on their uniforms.

Rgt. Ruspoli 1708 - Grenadier 

The regiment initially possessed, as can be seen in the painting, five colours: one white flag, known as the Colonel’s Colour, bearing the Pope’s coat of arms and four stars—also derived from the same arms—placed in the four corners.

The remaining four companies each carried a blue colour with red tassels, as can likewise be observed in the painting. There does not appear to have been any red cord running around the edge of the flag, since no such feature is visible in the painting. They bore the Ruspoli’s coat of arms in the 4 corners.

The grenadier company carried no colour; instead of an ensign, it had a second lieutenant.

Rgt. Ruspoli Colonnella

For the Ruspoli coat of arms, a contemporary example was identified and reproduced in gold chiaroscuro,

Original coat of arms of the Ruspoli House as it is preserved in the Church of 
  San Lorenzo in Lucina, Rome

Colours of the first 5 Companies

Later, another five companies were added to the regiment. These new companies were also provided with colours, but this time the field was crimson red, in keeping with the practice followed by the other regiments.

Rgt. Ruspoli 1708 - Captain

Drunner

Colours of the last 5 Companies

PAPAL ARMY - 1708 THE REGIMENT FALCONIERI

 At the beginning of 1708, a battalion was formed under the command of Don Federico Colonna, the senior Captain of the Guards. It consisted of several companies of the Guards and was accordingly known as the “Colonna Battalion.” In April 1708, the battalion was sent to Malta, as it was feared that the island might be attacked by the Ottomans. In July 1708, once the threat of an Ottoman attack had subsided, the battalion left Malta and returned to Rome, where it was disbanded that same month.

In the following month, August 1708, however, some of the knights who had returned from Malta formed the cadre of a new regiment. This unit was raised with “soldiers of the militia”—and therefore not with men from the Guards—by the Knight of the Order of Malta, Fra’ Chiarissimo Falconieri, brother of a cardinal.

The regiment was also known as the Reggimento Croce Bianca (Regiment White Cross) since all of its officers were Knights of Malta. It remained stationed in Rome throughout its existence and was disbanded in February 1709.

Precisely because of the regiment’s close connection with the Order of the Knights of Malta, all its soldiers, including the rank and file, wore a white embroidered Maltese Cross sewn onto the uniform on the right side.

Lieutenant-Colonel: Cav. Fra’ Secondo Felice Busca.

Sergeant-Major: Pietro Andrea Ducanet, later Cav. Fra’ Papirio Bussi (ad interim).

1708 - Regiment Falconieri aka Croce Bianca

Rgt Falconieri. Standard Bearer for Company Colour

The regiment was organised into 8 companies, each numbering around 60 men. The companies were as follows:

1708 Regiment Falconieri - Bandiera Colonnella

Rgt Falconieri. Drummer

Rgt Falconieri. Standard Bearer for Colonnella Colour

Rgt Falconieri. Officer

PAPAL ARMY - 1708 WAR OF COMACCHIO DURING WSS - THE MEDICI REGIMENT

PERSONAL FORWORD

I know I really should not let myself get distracted from my existing projects, but that is simply the way I am. A comment left on TMP in response to one of my posts sparked my curiosity about an aspect of the War of the Spanish Succession that was completely unfamiliar to me: the War of Comacchio between the Empire and the Papal States.

In 1708, the latter hastily assembled a sizeable army in response to the Imperial threat, and this is something I would now like to investigate in greater detail. I intend to begin with the Medici Regiment, which played a prominent role during the Siege of Bondeno.

HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION

Papal territories had already been subjected to Imperial occupation during the campaigns of 1706 and 1707. In those districts which Vienna regarded as forming part of the Holy Roman Empire, the Imperial authorities imposed war contributions upon the local population. The Papacy responded by resorting to ecclesiastical sanctions against Imperial commanders and officials, thereby further aggravating an already tense political situation.

Rinaldo d’Este, Duke of Modena, had aligned himself with the Emperor during the War of the Spanish Succession, and his territories had consequently suffered considerably from French military operations. Against this background, he advanced claims to both the Duchy of Ferrara and the County of Comacchio, territories which were under Papal rule. In support of these claims, the Duke produced documentary evidence intended to demonstrate that the two territories properly belonged to the Empire rather than to the Papal States. His arguments were received favourably at the Imperial court in Vienna.

On 24 May 1708, the Emperor authorised General Claude Alexandre de Bonneval to occupy Comacchio. Imperial troops entered the territory and immediately began strengthening its defences. Among the works carried out was the construction of a tower bearing an inscription expressly intended to affirm and legitimise the Imperial claim over the area. What had previously been a diplomatic and jurisdictional dispute was thus transformed into an open political and military confrontation.

It was within this wider context that the operations around Bondeno took place in 1708. During the War of the Spanish Succession, Austrian Imperial forces moved into the Ferrarese territory, occupying and investing the area around Bondeno. The military operations had significant consequences for the locality: existing defensive works were damaged or destroyed, while the strategic value and defensive organisation of the district were subsequently reassessed. The events at Bondeno should therefore not be viewed as an isolated episode, but rather as part of the broader Imperial pressure exerted upon the northern territories of the Papal States during the conflict.

The Siege of Bondeno

Around the middle of October, Field Marshal-Lieutenant Königsegg moved against Bondeno, possession of which would have secured the Imperial lines of communication with Finale Emilia. Bondeno had been fortified by Cardinal Casoni against the advice of General Marsili, who would have preferred to evacuate the place, arguing that it would fall almost immediately. Instead, it held out for eleven days, from 17 to 28 October 1708, making the Siege of Bondeno the most important engagement of the entire conflict.

The position was naturally strong, being protected by two waterways: on one side the Panaro, flowing down from the Modenese mountains, and on the other a ditch known as the Scolo di Burana. The latter collected water from the marshlands around Mirandola and channelled it into the Panaro through a sluice set into a thick wall, around which stood substantial wooden palisades.

Bondeno was garrisoned by nine companies of the Medici Regiment, (and here I show this regiment) several companies of the Marsili Grenadier Regiment under Sergeant-Major O’Connor, and detachments from the Bentivoglio, Aurelii, Spada and Bonaccorsi Regiments. The militia consisted of companies from Bondeno, Stellata, Ficarolo and other places. Six guns, together with twelve bombardiers and a lieutenant, came from Ferrara, while another four guns came from Stellata.

1708 Papal Army. Regiment Medici

Altogether, the defenders numbered about 2,500 men: approximately 1,600 regular soldiers, 700 of whom had only recently arrived, and 800 men of the Ferrarese militia. They were commanded by Colonel Francesco Maria Medici of Camerino, who had been sent from Ferrara more than a month earlier and had already taken measures to improve the defences of the locality.

The Imperial attack began on 17 October. Owing to the determined resistance of the defenders, what had initially been an assault soon developed into a formal siege. The exact strength of Königsegg’s forces is not specified, but since he commanded the infantry that had landed at Felonica, together with the cuirassier regiments Hautois, Roccavione and Visconti, his force must have amounted to at least 5,000 men, supported by two mortars and twelve guns.

The final assault took place before dawn on 28 October and the Imperialist occupied the Town

1708 Papal Army. Regiment Medici - Drummer